The Goal of a Facial Reconstruction
Dr. Caroline Wilkinson said it best in her chapter in Forensic Human Identification: An Introduction, “…facial reconstruction is not a method of identification, rather a tool for recognition to produce a list of names from which the individual may be identified by DNA assessment, dental record analysis, or other scientifically accepted method of identification.”
Simply put, facial reconstructions are meant to provide leads in cases that have none. A forensic artist produces a reconstruction, and the resulting images are provided to the Coroner/ME or Law Enforcement Agency to present to the public. The goal of publishing those images is to reach someone who may have known the person in life. If someone recognizes the image as possibly being a missing family member or friend, the hope is the person will call the investigating agency with information. The investigating agency then pursues a scientific identification or exclusion via the aforementioned methods (dental, DNA, etc).
Reconstruction or Approximation?
There have been in-depth discussions among practitioners and anthropologists about what the discipline should be called. Some prefer the term “approximation” instead of “reconstruction” since the face can only be approximated from the skull. “Reconstruction” is the more well known of the two terms, particularly among those who would request one for a case. If you’d like to learn more about the on-going discussion of what the discipline should be called, see the Resources page. Currently, the two terms are used interchangeably.
The Combination Method vs Traditional Methods
The photos on this page illustrate the process I use to produce a 3D facial reconstruction. I use a method called the combination method. This involves sculpting some of the underlying facial muscles first, then applying tissue depth markers at various cranial landmarks on the face. The face is then gradually filled in with clay between the muscles and over the muscles using the tissue depth markers as guidelines for the shape of the face. The soft-tissue depths used are averages based on scientifically collected/published data. Please see the Resources page for more information on where to find soft-tissue data.
This method is called the combination method because it combines the two traditional methods used in the field of facial reconstruction, the “anatomical method” and the “tissue-depth method” (also referred to as the American method). The anatomical method, pioneered by Russian anthropologist Mikhail Gerasimov, involved sculpting all of the facial muscles first and gradually building up the various facial layers (fat, glands, etc.) in clay. The tissue depth method, developed by American anthropologist Wilton Krogman, involves placing tissue-depth markers at various bony landmarks, using strips of clay to connect the markers, and filling in the spaces between the strips of clay. The muscles are not sculpted in the tissue-depth method.
The Process of 3D Facial Reconstruction
It should be noted, I only become involved in a case at the request of the investigating agency-either Law Enforcement or the Coroner/Medical Examiner. Occasionally, NamUs representatives refer the investigating agency to me if an investigator enters their case into NamUs and believes a facial reconstruction might help the case.
Reading reports and viewing photos
The process begins with becoming familiar with the facts of a case. This includes reading anthropology, odontology (dental), autopsy, and scene reports. It also involves viewing autopsy and scene photos if they are available. Viewing these photos is a crucial step because remnants of soft tissue may be present on the remains at the scene (but later removed in the cleaning process) that can provide information about facial features. Likewise, clothing and hair found at the scene can provide information about the person’s build (heavy, thin) and the color, length, and texture of hair.
Examining the remains
Next, if the actual remains are available to examine, I complete a thorough examination of the skull and mandible (including all available teeth and/or dental prostheses). I prefer to examine and photograph the remains myself because I am looking for particular features that may not be clearly visible in photographs or mentioned in anthropology reports. Anthropological examinations are focused on determining stature, sex, age range, ancestry, evidence of injury, and pathology. They don’t typically describe the bony features relevant to determining the features of the face, unless there is an anomaly present, like healed trauma.
Photography of the skull and mandible
After examining the skull and mandible, I photograph them together, in anatomical position based on the individual’s dental occlusion (tooth wear facets can give clues to the person’s natural occlusion during life –overbite, underbite, crossbite). They are photographed in the Frankfort Horizontal Plane. This orientation places the skull in a position closely resembling how we hold our head in life. It requires positioning the skull so the top of the external auditory meatus (ear opening) is in line with the lowest edge of the eye orbit (porion to orbitale for those who are familiar with landmarks). Photographs are taken from both right and left profile views as well as from the front. Care is taken to photograph far enough away from the skull so no perspective distortion is introduced. I also take photos of details of the skull like healed fractures, asymmetries, and areas of muscle attachment.
3D scanning and printing
Once the photography is completed, the skull and mandible are scanned separately using a 3D scanner. Investigating agencies may choose to provide a CT scan (DICOM files) of the skull and mandible, if available. Those scanned (or CT) digital files, or meshes, are then prepared for 3D printing, and the skull and mandible are printed in PLA plastic using a 3D printer.
Adding clay muscles and tissue depth markers
Once printed, the plastic mandible and skull are placed in anatomical position, on an armature, with the correct dental occlusion. The mandible is glued to the skull at the temporomandibular joint with padding included to simulate the cartilage in the joint. Clay “facial muscles” are sculpted paying close attention to the location of muscle attachments indicated on the skull. The tissue depth markers are applied, and the face is filled in between and over the muscles using the markers and muscles to guide the shape of the face.
Adding facial features and sculpting hair
Facial features like the nose, mouth, and eyes are added using measurements from the skull to determine the length, width, and nostril placement for the nose, the width of the mouth, and the thickness of the lips. Details like wrinkles and folds may be added only with careful consideration to the age range provided by the anthropologist and the underlying skeletal and dental anatomy. Hair is sculpted in clay. Unless hair color, length, and style are known, the style of the hair is left generic so as not to distract from facial features.
Final photography
The finished sculpture is photographed in five views: front, ¾ left and right, and left and right profiles. I use oblique lighting so the features of the face can be seen. I then enhance the photos using Adobe Lightroom and Photoshop. I’ll darken the hair if hair color is known, and make the photos black and white. If the person had facial hair at the time of death, I’ll add the facial hair after the first round of photos. That allows the investigating agency to have photos of the reconstruction with and without facial hair. If eyeglasses are recovered from the scene, photos can also be taken with and without the eyeglasses. I then send the photos to the investigating agency for review and ask if any changes should be made.
If the requesting agency is in Colorado (or surrounding states), I can transport the finished bust to the agency to be used for a press conference or display. The clay is oil-based and remains soft, so shipping is not an option. If the finished sculpture cannot be transported, multiple black and white images will be provided to the investigating agency.
Benefit of 3D Reconstruction
One of the benefits of having a 3D reconstruction completed is the ability to see it from multiple angles. A 2D reconstruction is typically a drawing from the front and possibly a profile view.
Challenges for Forensic Facial Reconstructions
A facial reconstruction is not an exact portrait of how the person appeared in life. It is an estimation of how they may have looked. There are certain soft tissue facial features that cannot be estimated from the skull. It can be a challenge to create a likeness that will spark recognition.
An additional challenge is getting the final images in front of the right person who might recognize the image as a missing family member or friend. The images must be published far and wide through traditional media (television news, printed news), through social media, through the law enforcement and coroner/medical examiner’s own websites and their social media sites, and through national databases like NamUs.gov. Photos of personal effects or clothing should accompany the facial reconstruction photos. Those photos, when seen together, may increase the chance of triggering recognition. If additional test results (ie. isotope testing) indicate the person is from a specific region of the country, it may help to publish the photos in that area, as well.
The “Missing Missing”
One of the toughest challenges for unidentified person cases is sometimes referred to as the “missing missing”, or the “unreported missing”. These are people who have lost touch with their families for an extended period of time before they died. Family members do not know they are missing and have not reported them missing to law enforcement. They are referred to as the “missing missing” because their names are not on official missing person lists. Many of those individuals may have lived a transient lifestyle.